Ethics ratings and subsets for every nation: India
Moral Contours
Historical figures
Child of Hindu Dalit (untouchable) caste family background. Post-graduate studies in economics at Columbia in USA and LSE in London - where he also studied Law. Subsequently he practised as lawyer and politician in India campaigning for the rights of untouchables. He was a major contributor to writing of 1947 Constitution of Independent India. Increasing frustration with his fellow Hindus led him in later life to encourage his fellow caste members to convert to Buddhism. It is claimed that there are more statues of him in India than there are of either Gandhi or Nehru.
Life
Radical Tea Towel account of the life and work of Ambedkar
Writings
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Assistant to the Buddha, after whose death he became the foremost interpreter of his teaching. Against majority opposition, he favoured women's membership of the sangha.
Life
Born into a Bengali Hindu background in Calcutta, he was sent to England at the age of 9, where his studies culminated at Cambridge University. He became adept in several European languages and widely read, returning to India after 14 years, initially to work in state administration, to publish poetry and engage in local politics. These last led to his campaigning against British rule, for which he was imprisoned. He spent the second half of his life in Pondicherry (a French enclave), practising a distinctive version of Yoga which was designed to bring into human reality a present sense of divine being. This became central to the life of an ashram, run by his mother (Mira Richard) and himself (later centre of the town Auroville). His beliefs are set out in his extensive writings. He embodied an ethical mysticism.
Life
Learn Religions on the life of Sri Aurobindo
Writings
These are extensive. They can be downloaded from the Sri Aurobindo ashram website
Most notably:
vols 21-2 The Life Divine
vols 23-4 Synthesis of Yoga
vols 25 The Ideal of Human Unity
Video
Probably now most associated with the emergence of Theosophy, Annie Besant deserves to be linked with other causes as well. Amongst these were her espousal of atheistic beliefs – elected vice-president of the National Secular Society - and subsequent campaigning for workers’ rights and for birth control. She was branded as immoral by the social and political establishment. In relocating to India she became active in the movement for political independence – for 5 years president of the Indian National Congress.
Life
- Brief life of Besant from the BBC
- Extensive illustrated account of Besant's life from Spartacus International
- An account of Besant's life by her friend W T Stead
Writings
- Works by Annie Besant in the Project Gutenberg archive
- The Basis of Morality
- White Slavery in London
- The Future of Indian Politics
- The Ancient Wisdom
Video
Vinayak Narahari Bhave (popularly Vinoba) widely regarded as a successor to Gandhi, and revered as national teacher figure (Acharya). Instead of continuing as a university student, he joined Gandhi’s ashram where he began teaching and learned how to contribute to self-sufficient community life, including spinning. He read widely, extended his range of regional and national languages, and accepted challenges given him by his mentor. These included the role of satyagrahi – one prepared to engage individually in non-violent action in the interests of truth and social justice. In these respects he campaigned for the independence of India from Britain. He initiated the Land Gift movement (Bhoodan) invited donations of land for the benefit of the harijans – landless poor, outside any positive status within the caste system. The extent of his success is disputed, but he is a distinctive practitioner of religious humanism.
Life
Writings
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Inspiration of the Caitanya sect, better known today as the Hare Krishna Movement or the International Society for Krishna Consciousness. He was born into a Bengali Hindu family. In preference to formal brahminical training he sought to emulate the life of Krishna in a more demonstrative and ascetic life-style, expressed in singing and dance. The ecstasy of his devotion (bhakti) to God proved attractive to followers then and since - they were sensed as engaging with the divine source of all creativity and play in life and expounded theologically as such by his contemporary disciple (Rupa Gosvami) and subsequent tradition.
Life
Entry on Caitanya from New World Encyclopedia
An account of Caitanya's life and significance by Stephen Knapp
Writings
Best known 20th century non-violent activist, initially in S Africa on behalf of Indian immigrants, then more substantially thereafter in the cause of achieving Indian Independence and of inter-religious peaceability. His own Brahminic family background became a spur to challenge the negative manifestations of caste in regarding ‘untouchables’ instead as ‘Harijans’ – children of God. He was especially fond of the Bhagavadgita, as also the Sermon on the Mount and the writings of Tolstoy. Is vegetarian lifestyle and use of fasting to demonstrate important points were consistent with his belief in satyagraha – the force of truth. It’s as foolish to ignore his idiosyncrasies as it is to exaggerate them. He was known as Mahatma ('great souled') or Bapuji ('beloved Father').
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'The Complete Site on Gandhi' with a wealth of materials on his life and work
- Obituary of Gandhi from The Guardian
- 'Gandhi: his life in pictures'
Works
Video
Last of the sequence of 10 Sikh Gurus. Born in historical context of tension with Muslim Mughal Emperor and fighting between local chieftains; when he was only 9 years old his own father the 9th Guru was executed by the emperor. He initiated several radical changes in amongst Sikhs, including the formation of the Khalsa entered by baptismal vows of lifelong commitment on Baisakhi Day in 1699 and symbolised by the wearing of 5 items beginning with ‘K’. Another was the gathering together of the writings of previous Gurus to create the Sikh scripture known as the Adi Granth. This was from hereon to be the continuing Guru instead of further individuals. His own writings and those of his immediate followers formed the basis of complementary scriptures – the Dasam Granth; its composition is a matter of continuing contention. The Sikh life was one of strong moral discipline.
Life
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Life of Gobind Singh with links to other resources about him and Sikhism
- 'Guru Gobind Singh: his life and teachings'
Writings
Gujerati born Parsi/Zoroastrian, who became the representative of the ‘Parsi Society for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Zoroastrians in Persia’. During a period of nearly 40 years he founded schools, repaired fire-temples, challenged forced conversions and economic constraints on his co-religionists who continued to live in their country of origin. He developed mutual regard with the newly emergent Baha’is.
Life
- Lengthy study of the life and work of Hataria
- 'The life and times of Manekji Limji Hataria'
- Brief biography of Hataria
Muhammad Ali Jinnah was first Governor General of the newly created Pakistan, separated from India, in 1947. From a legal practice, following training in law in Bombay and London, he was elected to Indian national councils on which he continually served for nearly 40 years. From his own loyalty to Muslim interests, there was continuing tension with those perceived as over-zealously pursuing Hindu interests. This was at the root of his disagreement with Gandhi. However, the nature and authenticity of his own Muslim identity is challenged by some exponents of orthodox Islam.
Life
Video
Jinnah's speech at the inauguration of the Pakistan Constituent Assembly (4 mins)
Widely esteemed poet and mystic, passionate about humanity. Associated with both Hindu and Muslim sources in his background and prospectively with both the emergent Sikhism (hence his writings in the Adi Granth) and the later Kabir-panth sect (as reflected in their Bijak). He was morally scathing about the external habits of institutional religions, favouring instead an attitude of personal reverence and love for all. Many of the reported details of his life are the stuff of legend as is his appropriation of his name in today's youth culture
Life
Short life of Kabir with links to many of his poems
Writings
Songs of Kabir (translated by Rabindranath Tagore)
Born to a Punjabi Sikh family, he was largely self-educated but became a recognised scholar, producing many written works. In them he strongly argued that Sikhism was quite distinct from Hinduism. His Encyclopedia of SIkh Literature remains authoritative.
Life
Writer of amusing ditties and verse, animal stories, novels and autobiography drawing on early years in India, short stays in S Africa and the USA, and main residence in England. Colonial mindset and World War patriotism are captured, conveyed and critiqued. Vividly demonstrative of the power of story for moral education.
Life
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Kipling Society biography of Kipling with links to a wide range of resources
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Lengthy Poetry Foundation biography of Kipling with links to some of his poems
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Literature Network biography of Kipling with links to many of his works
Writings
Central figure of Hindu devotion. He is found in Indian writings dating back over 4500 years. Although his individual historical existence is open to challenge, he is at the heart of a range of stories – of childhood play, of dancing affection, of authoritative teaching and of rescuing intervention. Above all he is an avatar/incarnation of the Lord Vishnu
Life
Born in South India, he was exposed through his father to the beliefs of the Theosophical Society, and identified by its leaders as the expected World Teacher – the Lord Maitreya. They sent him for education in England, where in 1922 he had an extended spiritual experience which persuaded him of his special status – independent of any religious organisation. Instead self-awareness bringing unconditional freedom from any previous ‘conditioning’ should be individually sought by everyone through meditation. Intellectual schooling should be replaced by deeper self-knowledge.
Life
Writings
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Lalleshwarif or Lalla, female yogi and poetess, of whom little is known for certain. Anecdotally, mistreatment by her mother-in-law led to her abandonment of marriage and with it the wearing of clothes. Detached from social conformities found meaning in discovering the Lord of the Universe - Siva - inside herself and extending outward. This she expressed in pithy poetry, prized in Kashmiri tradition. Her attraction to Sufi Muslims was reciprocated.
Life
Poems
Mahesh Yogi Maharishi was founder of the Transcendental Movement/ TM. From a Hindu kshratiyan caste background and after many years learning from his spiritual guru Swami Brahmananda Saraswati, he founded TM and the International Academy of Meditation in the late 1950s. The association with the Beatles raised their profile significantly and subsequently, centres were established throughout the world – both North and South America, Switzerland and Moscow. A notional link with moral education is evident from the claim that individual creativity and understanding is enhanced, along with social well being and health. Less sympathetic critics overlook his enormous wealth creation and simply characterise him as a ‘benign charlatan’.
Life
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Historical transmitter of Jain religion, notionally preceded by a succession of 24 Jinas or ‘ford makers’/spiritual conquerors who relaunch eras of blissful contentment which each deteriorate. This ‘re-booting’ of knowledge, faith and conduct is a mythological process of continual rebirth. Mahavira by practising austerity and asceticism gains omniscience and attracts thousands of followers. They share the belief that all living, breathing beings – human, animal and plants life – must be treated compassionately, with the effect that any bad karma is burnt away. Much detail of Mahavira’s life became elaborated over the following seven centuries. It seems likely that he was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha but that they did not meet. Jains are remarkable for their ultimate valuing of non-violence.
Life
- Brief BBC life of Mahavira
- Who was Mahavira?
- Mahavira's life and teachings from the World History Encylcopedia
Writings
Abul Ala Maududi also known as Maulana who through his prolific and much translated writings became a leading political exponent of Islam, perhaps even more influential beyond Pakistan where he founded Jamaat-al-Islam in 1941. The clarity of his exposition conveys the impression that his version of Muslim teachings is the whole truth and nothing but the truth – and to question it is to question the authority of the Qur’an. From the perspectives of other Muslims, including the Barelvi and Deobandi scholars and the entire Sufi tradition, his stance is both questionable and misleading. Similarly many Non-Muslim religious believers regard his exclusivist theological reasoning as both morally and theologically presumptuous.
Life
Self-proclaimed avatar/manifestation of divine love and source of unity for the whole world. From a Zoroastrian family background, he attended a Christian secondary school, had a powerful sense of Muslim enlightenment and Hindu initiation, with the outcome that at the age of 25 he attracted followers who named him Meher Baba/Compassionate Father. In 1924 he set up Meherabad – a community centre to train disciples in love for God, spiritual and moral understanding and service of the poor, with a free school and hospital. For over forty years he lived and taught through silent signs and gestures. Baba loving was subsequently established elsewhere in India as also in the US with the sole priority of promoting the love of others and defeating war.
Life
- A brief biography of Meher Baba
- Illustrated biography of Meher Baba
- Pete Townshend talks about Meher Baba
Writings
Video
Little known of his life - probably Hindu brahmin family background in S India and later based at Buddhist university of Nalanda in N India. He is generally recognised as the founder of the Middle Way tradition of Buddhism, expounded in his Mula-Madhyama-Karika. On the one hand he challenges a too easily taken for granted acceptance of things. On the other, being emptied from such false consciousness is not a finally negative experience.
Life
Entry on Nagarjuna in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Entry on Nagarjuna in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Writings
Precious Garland of Advice to a King
Nanak was the first of the ten Sikh Gurus. Throughout India he preached an ecumenical message of unity and equality of all with God. Birth status and caste are irrelevant. Purity of heart and mind matter much more than the performance of religious rituals and ascetic life style. Whilst some of the subsequent accounts of his life are best understood as hagiographic beautification, his life and teaching are well rooted in history and appear as major components of the Adi Granth scriptures. His affinity to Hindus has led some to judge Sikhs to be a subset of that tradition, whereas his affinity with Islam has been commonly resisted by Muslim theologians.
Life
Guru Nanak's life and teachings
Writings
Dadabhai Nauroji was a mathematician and social reformer in his native India (through the Indian National Congress) as also in the UK (elected as a Liberal MP). His inspiration came from his Zoroastrian faith, with an emphasis on justice for all against the persistent power of vested interests and superstition. In his ‘drain theory’ he identified the unfairness arising from Imperial relationships.
Life
Irish born Methodist and teacher called Margaret Noble who became a Hindu and political activist under the influence of Vivekananda. In addition to her continuing educational and social work activities, she campaigned as an Indian Nationalist against British domination. Powerful example of direct interface between Hindu spiritual vision and moral transformation.
Life
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Italian born Christian who lived most of his life in India as a Jesuit missionary who lived in the garb of a Hindu brahmin teacher, equally at home in Tamil and Sanskrit. Though temporarily challenged by fellow Portuguese missionaries in Goa his distinctive interpretation of the gospel was approved in Rome, he consistently embraced Hindu theological categories and achieved extensive recognition amongst a wide range of Indian people of all castes.
Life
Writings
Calcutta born businessman (Abban Charan De), who at the age of 37 took on a responsibility for the furtherance of Krishna Consciousness in the West, becoming known as Bhaktivedanta Swama Prabhupada. For 20 years he concentrated on translation of key texts while maintaining family responsibilities (these grew to some 90 volumes by the time of his death). Thereafter, he moved to the USA, briefly in New York and for the rest of his life California. From his base there he promoted the development of ISKCON (the International Society for Krishna Consciousness), generating followers in many American and European cities. Their chanting enthusiasm was in the tradition of the 15th century Chaitanya and responding to the words of the Bhagavadgita. The consequent lifestyle was one of simplicity, with abstention from alcohol, drugs, meat and non-marital sex. He insisted that the sense of bliss arising from a life centred on the Gita would be transformative for both the individual and for all humanity, becoming attuned to cosmic unity.
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Successively university professor, international ambassador and President of the Republic of India. His writings expound traditional Vedanta philosophy and western idealism, affirming the ultimate unity of moral and religious beliefs within their apparent differences.
Life
- Entry on Radhakrishnan in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Official biography of Radhakrishnan
- An account of Radhakrishnan's life, work and legacy
Writings
One of the more controversial of modern gurus, Shree Bhagwan Rajneesh resigned his university teaching position in philosophy in 1966 to become a spiritual teacher – of undoubted charismatic power. This led to his creation of an ashram in Poona, referred to as the Orange People, designed for healing therapies, meditation and ‘shocking’ experiences. The shocks were intended to release energies and create more direct awareness, and included physical outbursts and sexual activities. These last contributed to increasing criticism of both him and the movement as a whole; drug abuse and financial scandal was a further challenge to credibility. His creation of a replacement base in the USA 1981 – 5 was a repeat of all these features; following expulsion, he returned to Poona now calling himself Osho with another set of followers. His life is an outstanding example of the need for clarity about the criteria by which any leader or exemplar figure is evaluated.
Life
- Britannica biography of Rajneesh and history of the Rajneesh movement
- Osho Source Book - a book-length treatment of Rajneesh and his teachings
Writings
Video
Pandita Ramabai was a social activist, who challenged dominant conventions from within Hindu, Unattached and then Christian starting points. Her own education and experience included several years in both the UK and USA. From a Brahminic family she chose a lower caste marriage. She went on to set up a school for child widows and continually campaigned in favour of educational provision for women.
Life
- An introduction to Ramabai's life and work
- Women's History Network appreciation of Ramabai's life and work
Writings
Bengali born Hindu moral and spiritual leader with infectious ‘common touch’ teaching style. He sought to convey a form of (mystical) consciousness in which Brahman (‘Godness’) is in the whole of everything. He demonstrated this by periodically living as a woman, as a Christian and as a Muslim. He believed that profound intimacy with the other is the way to ultimate unity.
Life.
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Born into a Brahminic family and exposed through 12 years of working with officials of the East India Company to western thinking, he is known from his teaching and writing for seeking to reconcile Hindu and western philosophical traditions. He founded the Brahmo Samaj/Theistic Society and taught that many of the mythological and rituals aspects of both Hindu and Christian traditions could and in many instances should be abandoned (eg caste, polygamy and suttee – the obligation on a widow to burned on the funeral pyre of her husband). He regarded the scriptural texts such as the Upanishads and Puranas as complementary to the revelatory character of the natural world. He pursued this theme with Christians during the last three years of his life spent in England. However controversial a figure, he saw education as a central vehicle for very necessary moral, social and religious reform.
Life
Writings
Mahadev Ranade was a lawyer and judge who used his various social positions to campaign for a reformed interpretation of Hindu beliefs and morality, especially caste-based differentials. ‘Change from within’ was the policy which characterises his actions. In respect of India’s belonging to the British Empire he favoured giving priority to home-produced materials. In respect of favouring age of consent rather than child marriage, on his first wife’s death he accepted the tradition of re-marriage to a young girl (she was 12 years old), but then made her education a necessary priority.
Life
Writings
Religious leader with following of many millions. He claimed to be a reincarnation of his19th century namesake and the Lord Krishna, and was associated with regular miracle working and healing. In addition to the huge residential ashram in India, there are now centres in countries throughout the world and elaborate educational programmes promoting truth, moral behaviour, peace, love and non-violence. Critics, including former associates, cite evidence of wilful deception, fraud and sexual abuse.
Life
- Obituary of Sathya Sai Baba
- Illustrated biography of Sathya Sai Baba
- Allegations of abuse against Sathya Sai Baba
Writings
Video
Historically, probably the most influential of Indian philosophers. He is seen as the source of the Advaita Vedanta tradition which understands the world and entire universe as grounded in divine reality – Brahman – and which is all-pervasive. Until that is realised, individual and collective life will be distracted and distressed; realisation of that (moksha) will bring serenity. The stories of his life have been hugely elaborated in tradition (even the century of his life is uncertain). The historical core is brahminic family birth in the south of the country, walking north to Benares spending substantial periods of time there and subsequently in the Himalayan region. He attracted followers to his teaching and is credited with establishing a series of major monastic centres. Amongst the many writings accredited to him is an important commentary on the Brahma Sutra.
Life
Writings
Keshub C Sen was one of the leading 19th century Hindu social reformers. Like other key figures in the Brahmo Samaj movement, he worked to overcome many caste restrictions and towards greater freedom for women. More distinctively however he found a strong sense of individual God directedness, drawing on the experience of Caitanya and direct exposure to Christianity. From this combination he affirmed the Motherhood of God and supported by 12 disciples he developed education as an agency for human brotherhood, rooted in the conscience of inner Godwardness.
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Hindu reformer, rejecting 'idolatrous' features in traditional culture and favouring social reform whilst reaffirming distinctive Hindu ideas which he expressed in the Brahmo Samaj organisation. He founded the Tattwabodhini Patrika (Truth Seeking News) journal which encouraged debate about issues in contemporary society, stressing the moral and spiritual aspects of personal development and promoted the education of women and the legalisation of widow remarriage.
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Writings
Rabindranath was Debendranath’s youngest son. Initially he associated himself with the religious interests of the Brahmo Samaj, but subsequently concentrated on his own writing, especially poetry. Politically he was critical of British rule, but he campaigned even more vigorously in the cause of internationalism. Gandhi held him in high regard.
Life
- Nobel Prize biography of Tagore with links to other resources
- Tagore and education
- The life and literature of Tagore with links to poems
Writings
Video
Leading Sister in a Roman Catholic order of nuns committed to lifelong service of the poor. Her own work was principally in Calcutta, but her own influence and that of her order spread throughout the world. Her belief in the sanctity of life led to her constant opposition to contraception and abortion. She was criticised for this (and not only by non-Christians) as also by some for her appearing to give ‘conversion’ priority over best medical care. In the eyes of many Christians and others alike she remains a deservedly imitable example.
Life
- Nobel Prize biography of Mother Teresa with links to further resources
- Biography of Mother Teresa from the Mother Teresa Center website with links to further resources
- Brief illustrated BBC biography of Mother Teresa
Video
An internationally renowned Hindu reformer whose distinctive message and presence was first heard and seen at a World Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893. He was inspired by the teachings of Ramakrishna and sought to put into practice the belief that serving the entire community of humankind and all other beings is serving the greater being of Brahman.
Life
- A brief biography of Vivekananda
- An account of Vivekananda's life, teaching and legacy with further links
Writings